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Bilateral
- Supine position
- Poor inspiration
- Obesity
- Pregnancy
- Abdominal distension – ascites, intestinal obstruction, abdominal mass
- Diffuse pulmonary fibrosis
- Lymphangitis carcinomatosa
- Disseminated lupus erythematosus
- Bilateral basal pulmonary emboli
- Painful conditions after surgery
- Bilateral diaphragmatic paralysis
Unilateral
- Posture – lateral decubitus position
- Gaseous distension of stomach or colon
- Dorsal scoliosis
- Pulmonary hypoplasia
- Pulmonary collapse
- Phrenic nerve palsy
- Eventration
- Pneumonia or pleurisy
- Pulmonary thromboembolism
- Rib fracture and other painful conditions
- Subphrenic infection
- Subphrenic mass